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Approach to work motivation

Daniel Romero Pernia

1. Introduction

The concept of motivation is used in different contexts and with different meanings. Varied the emphasis that is put in trying to define it. Motivation is also a highly complex phenomenon, which one can approach from different perspectives. This paper is an approach to work motivation and its relationship to other critical phenomena of organizational behavior, such as performance and job satisfaction.

2. Attempt to define

In the study of human behavior at work there are few issues as attractive as the motivation. There has always been interested in knowing the reasons why people act a certain way. The theoretical tools to achieve this knowledge is far from consensual. The term motivation has been used in various ways. Define it involves moving between several alternatives that emphasize one or another aspect of the phenomenon. The motivation has been conceptualized as an internal state causing behavior, such as will or disposition to exert effort, as instincts, impulses or reasons that generate behaviors, such as trigger force actions, as process that leads to the satisfaction of needs ... Over time has finally prevailed last two conceptions: the position of those who define motivation as a force or set of forces, and the vision of those who conceived as a process or series of processes. Within these two trends are multiple definitions, some very simple and general, others more complete and accurate. Try to find a concept that is understandable and useful.

As previously announced, some authors conceive of motivation as a force or set of forces. De la Torre (2000, p. 35), for example, notes that motivation is the "force that drives the subject to adopt a certain behavior ". Gibson, Ivancevich and Donnelly (2001, p. 145), within the same perspective, defined as "forces acting on the individual or parts of it to initiate and guide their behavior." In the latter definition are explicitly incorporated the external appearance of the grounds and two important elements of behavior it generates: the initiation and directionality. Hellriegel and Slocum (2004, p.117) introduced in its definition the purpose of the conduct, when they conceive of motivation as "forces acting on a person or inside and cause it to behave in a manner specifically directed toward a goal. "

Other authors prefer to define motivation as a process. It seems more useful to define it that way. The motivation is not directly observable phenomenon. It is inferred from specific behaviors. Therefore, its definition should suggest a sequence of events leading from the initial need to the satisfactory conduct of that need.

Thus, Reeve (2003, p. 5) defines motivation as simply a set of "processes that provide energy and direction to behavior." Robbins (2004, p.155), with a little more precision, conceived as a series of "processes that account for the intensity, direction and persistence of an individual effort to achieve a goal." Kinicki and Kreitner (2003, p. 142) introduced the voluntary nature of motivation when conceptualized as "psychological processes that produce arousal, direction and persistence of voluntary actions and goal-oriented."

From these latter considerations, we will try to develop a definition of motivation at work is widespread and comprehensive, and also incorporates not only the satisfaction of personal needs, but also the achievement of organizational goals.

Let us begin by distinguishing the key elements underlying the previous entries: a.

Motivation can only be inferred from observable behavior that this generates. B.

Being tied to a need and satisfactory conduct, it seems more logical to define motivation as a process consisting of a chain of events ranging from awareness of the need to meet that. C.

The motivation is internal components (needs of the human body) and external factors (pressure from the sociocultural environment in which the individual is immersed) d.

The motivation has three effects on behavior: The initiates, directs and sustains it. E.

All behavior is intended to satisfy a need or a set of requirements that gave it birth.

f. In the workplace, such behavior, and seek to meet the needs and impulses of the individual, seeks to achieve organizational objectives.

Therefore, we define work motivation as a process by which a worker or driven by internal forces acting on it, initiates, manages and maintains a behavior aimed at achieving certain incentives that allow satisfaction of their needs, while simultaneously trying to achieve the goals of the organization.

3. Dimensions of motivation
far
It follows from the foregoing that the motivation has three dimensions. Robbins ( op.cit. , pp. 155-156), Muchinsky (2000, p. 192) and Gibson et alt. ( op. Cit., p. 143) identified these three dimensions: intensity (or force), direction (or orientation) and persistence (or perseverance).

a. The intensity is the amount of effort that the individual invests in performing a task. B.

The address the orientation of the effort towards a specific goal. Involving the choice of activities in which the individual focus their efforts in achieving this goal. C.

The persistence is the continuity of effort over time. The persistence makes the individual more than the obstacles encountered in its progress towards achieving the goal.


4. The complexity of motivation

Motivation, as noted above, is not directly observable. Only inferred from the behavior that initiates, directs and sustains. Moreover, the interplay between motivation and behavior is quite complex.

Blum and Naylor (1999, pp. 472-475) present an interesting synthesis of the complex facts that make both the phenomenon of motivation as any attempt to study it. Proceed to summarize: a.

In any situation, rarely an individual behaves in a certain way as a result of a single reason. Various reasons, usually operated simultaneously to produce a given behavior. B.

Often individuals are unaware of the real reason for his behavior. People often do things without being aware of the basic motivation for their conduct. C.

The motivation that causes a behavior can arise from within the individual or by factors acting from outside himself. These internal and external factors remain constant interaction. D.

At times, different ways of behavior are caused by the same reason. An individual in the environment options to meet the same need. E.

Different reasons may result in the same form of behavior. The same type of behavior can lead to achieving incentives to suit different reasons.

f. The reasons vary both in type and in intensity, from one individual to another. The individual and the situation make the incentives that motivate a person may not motivate another. Or individuals can generate two different levels of intensity.

g. Los impulsos o motivos varían en un mismo individuo en diferentes ocasiones. Lo que hoy impulsa a alguien a ejecutar una determinada conducta, puede que en el futuro no lo motive.

5. El ciclo motivacional

Antes definimos la motivación como un proceso, es decir, como una secuencia interconectada de eventos que parten de una necesidad y culminan con la satisfacción de la misma.

Diferentes autores han propuesto distintas formas de ver el ciclo de la motivación. Chiavenato (2000, p.70), Kast y Rosenzweig (1996, p. 300), Hellriegel y Slocum ( op. cit. , p. 118), Davis y Newstrom (2003, p.122) y Gibson et alt. ( op.cit., p.147), presented two proposals to illustrate the motivational process.

In an attempt to easily integrate the basic approach of these authors propose a model of seven stages: a.

Awareness of the need
b. Transformation of necessity in a specific desire
c. Id incentive to satisfy the desire
d. Selection of course of action that leads to the incentive
e. Initiation and maintenance of conduct aimed at achieving the incentive
f. Achieving the desired incentive
g. Meeting the need

Motivation begins when the individual becomes aware of any deficiency that must complete or some imbalance to be corrected. Without this psychological experience, even when the need exists objectively, there is no motivation. That need is filtered through culture, offering a range of alternatives to meet it, the spectrum usually ranges from one to another company. Thus, the need becomes a specific desire. With this desire to meet the individual located in the social or organizational environment or incentives that will fill. If no such incentive, the simple desire to not cause any behavior and the motivational process is interrupted. Once stated the incentive or goal to be achieved, the person selects a course of action that will lead to that goal. Then start the conduct directed at the conquest of that incentive and persisted in achieving it. If successful, the individual will satisfy the need that caused the cycle. If an obstacle prevents the goal becomes frustrated.

should be noted that there needs to produce longer cycles than others. Hunger, for instance, is a rapid succession of events, and reappears a few hours after having been satisfied. The need for personal growth (cap a career verbigracia) implies a longer process: your satisfaction is a long investment of time and effort.

6. Type de la motivación

Son numerosos los criterios que pueden utilizarse para clasificar la motivación. En este apartado consideraremos algunas clasificaciones básicas para la discusión general del tema. Se reservan para otro espacio las clases de motivaciones derivadas de teorías particulares.

6.1. Motivación extrínseca y motivación intrínseca.

La motivación puede tener dos grandes fuentes. Puede emanar de las necesidades internas del individuo o puede surgir a partir de las presiones y los incentivos externos. De allí deriva la existencia de dos clases de motivación: la extrínseca y la intrínseca.

La motivación extrínseca is caused by the expectation of external sanctions for their own behavior. Is expected to achieve a reward or avoidance of punishment or of any undesirable consequences. In other words, the conduct is instrumental: it becomes a means to an end. It may, for example, by obtaining an economic reward, social or psychological (a bonus, the approval of peers or an acknowledgment of their supervisor). Or it can be taken to avoid unpleasant consequences (denial of a pay rise, rejecting others, or loss of confidence from his boss). The

intrinsic motivation is caused by the gratification derived from the actual performance of behavior. Is expressive conduct, is both means and end. The realization, for example, a challenging job for which you have the skills, means that the activity is, in itself satisfactory.

Reeve ( op. cit., P. 130) summarizes the difference: "With the intrinsically motivated behavior, the motivation comes from internal needs and satisfaction provide spontaneous activity, with extrinsically motivated behavior motivation arises from incentives and consequences that are contingent on the observed behavior. " The

extrinsic motivation depends on other than the acting individual. That one can perceive or behavior. Or you can evaluate it according to their own standards. And, moreover, has the power to provide or withhold rewards or punishments. So that there is no guarantee that the behavior that the individual believes will lead right to the goal that promoted such behavior.

Intrinsic motivation, by contrast, dispenses with all externality. Self-sufficient. Therefore, the emerging theories of motivation emphasize the importance and potential of intrinsic motivation. Without wishing to ignore the role of external sanctions enhancer.

6.2. Positive motivation and negative motivation.

behavior that motivation can be oriented to produce an outcome that generates a reward and can be addressed to avoid any unpleasant consequence. This gives rise to the concepts of positive motivation and negative motivation.

The positive motivation is a process by which an individual initiates, maintains & Locations his behavior toward obtaining a reward, whether external (a prize, verbigracia) or internal (the gratification derived from the execution of a task) . This positive result encourages the repetition of the conduct that produced it. Consequences act as enhancers of such behavior.

The negative motivation is the activation process, maintenance and orientation of individual behavior, expecting to avoid an unpleasant consequence, whether it comes from outside (a reprimand, for example) or inside the person ( a feeling of frustration, say) This negative result tends to inhibit behavior that produced it ..

The modern management concepts considered not advisable to use negative motivation (the threat, fear), and usually offer the punishment as a last resort to deal with unwanted behaviors. Hellriegel and Slocum ( op. cit., p.101) destaca que el castigo puede surtir efecto en el corto plazo, pero a largo plazo puede originar recurrencia de la conducta indeseada, reacción emocional no deseada, conducta agresiva destructiva, desempeño apático y falto de creatividad, temor al administrador del castigo y rotación y ausentismo laboral.

6.3 . Micromotivación y macromotivación.

El nivel de motivación para el trabajo que exhibe un individuo a través de su conducta, no solamente es producto de las políticas, planes y condiciones de la organización. Ese nivel también resulta afectado por los valores sostenidos por la cultura de la sociedad en la cual se desenvuelve. Should define and distinguish, then, the macromotivación micromotivación. The
micromotivación
is the process by which organizations create a set of material incentives, social and psychological, to generate the behaviors that enable workers to meet their needs and achieve organizational goals. Is a direct attempt to increase the level of expected effort at work and with them, levels of satisfaction and individual performance. The enrichment of jobs, wage incentive plans and policies of empowerment are part of those attempts. The
macromotivación
is a process, usually unplanned, by which society transmits certain messages that the individual internalizes and to give an idea about yourself and about the work, ideas seriously influencing individual motivation levels. These messages, broadcast both by preaching and by social practice, are part of the cultural content that society transfers to its members throughout their lives, through the socialization process.
macromotivación
When aligned with the initiatives are promoted micromotivación motivational organizations. When the set of values \u200b\u200bin society have an address different from the micromotivación, efforts tend to cancel. A society, for example, leisure and privilege considers work as a punishment, hampering efforts for any organization to do to raise levels of motivation of its members.

7. Motivation, satisfaction and performance.

It is frequently the case that concepts such as motivation , satisfaction and performance are used in a capricious manner. Occasionally, some of these concepts are equivalent is not. Or are intertwined relationships sometimes simplistic. Often, for example, is the motivation and satisfaction as if they were synonyms. Or you think reasoned that a worker is automatically an individual of high performance. Or it is argued that a satisfied employee is always a high-performance worker. It seems that things do not work that way.

Let us, first, a distinction between motivation and satisfaction . In some theories, such as the theory of Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene, both terms are used in the same direction. However, most contemporary authors believes that motivation and satisfaction are concepts that refer to completely different phenomena. For them, motivation is a phenomenon prior to the conduct, and is based on the considerations on the consequences of future performance. Satisfaction, on the other hand, is an attitude that arises from conduct that reflects the feelings of people in relation to the rewards it receives. Hersey, Blanchard and Johnson (1998, p. 84) accurately summarized the difference: "Satisfaction is a consequence of past events, while the motivation is the result ahead of expectations" Let's go now

relations motivation and performance . A motivated worker is not necessarily a productive worker. For a high level of motivation will lead to high performance are needed some additional ingredients: the empowerment of the individual for the position, knowledge of what the organization expects of him ( role perception), the availability of resources for the implementation of the task and the worker identification with the organization . Only the combination of circumstances allows a high level of motivation is materialized in a high performance.

On this issue it is worth further consideration. Assuming that all conditions are optimal identified (capacity, role perception, resources, and identification), how is the relationship between motivation and performance? A sustained increase motivation also produces a sustained increase in productivity? Research seems to reject this linear relationship. McClelland, Vroom cited in Vroom and Deci (1999, p.214) states: "as motivation increases in intensity, first it causes an increase in efficiency of instrumental activity, and then decreases."

Vroom (idem ) forward two possible explanations to account for this decrease in performance when very high levels of motivation. The first is the narrowing of the field understanding que se produce cuando el individuo, altamente motivado para alcanzar una meta, fija su atención en las indicaciones específicas que conducen al resultado, y pasa por alto información importante. La segunda posible explicación es que elevados niveles de motivación tienden a asociarse con fuertes estados emocionales (como la ansiedad) que perjudican el desempeño.

La relación entre satisfacción y desempeño tampoco parece clara. Gibson et alt. ( op. cit., p. 124) establecen lo que tradicionalmente han sido las tres posibilidades de relación entre estas dos variables: 1) la satisfacción produce rendimiento or performance, 2) generates satisfaction performance and 3) no direct relationship between performance and satisfaction . The research showed a preference for the latter assertion. Although the situation varies, supporting the latter relationship, when taking into account the rewards. Thus, a reward productive behavior assessed followed by the performer increases satisfaction.

relations between these three concepts could be conceived as a circular set of influences. The motivation produces high performance when accompanying the skills, knowledge of the paper, the availability of resources and identification with the organization. good performance can lead to s extrinsic rewards and intrinsic satisfaction generated. The satisfaction achieved fueling expectations for future performance, increasing motivation for the new performance.

8. In conclusion

motivation at work can be seen as a process which is activated, is maintained and directs behavior toward the achievement of certain goals that meet important needs of the individual while allowing the achievement of organizational goals. Motivation, in general, is a complex phenomenon because of the variety of ways and the reasons expressed and combined to produce a given behavior. The motivational process can be seen as a cycle from the consciousness of a need to achieve the incentives that meet. Motivation can be approached from different perspectives. Can be seen from the forces that energize (extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation) from the expectations that the angle (positive motivation and negative motivation), or the source of the messages that influence (and macromotivación micromotivación). Between motivation and other factors such as satisfaction and performance is a circular network of influences, very different from simple deterministic connections sometimes down.

9. Basic Bibliography

Chiavenato, I. (2000). Human Resource Management (5 th ed.) Bogotá: McGraw Hill Interamericana.

Davis, K. and Newstrom, J. (2003). human behavior at work (11 ª. Edition). Mexico: McGraw Hill Interamericana.

De la Torre, F. (2000). human relations in the workplace . Mexico: Editorial Trillas.

Gibson, J., Ivancevich, J. and Donelly, J. (2001). Organizations: behavior, structure, processes (10 th ed.). Santiago de Chile: McGraw-Hill.

Hellriegel, D. and Slocum, J. (2004). Organizational Behavior (10 th ed.) Mexico: Thomson Learning Publishers.

Hersey, P., Blanchard, K. and Johnson, D. (1998). Organizational Behavior Management: Situational Leadership (7 th ed.) Mexico: Prentice Hall Inc.

Kast, F. and Rosenzweig, J. (1996). Management in organizations: a systems approach and contingency (4 th ed.). Mexico: Editorial Trillas.

Kinicki, A. And Kreitner, R. (2003). Organizational Behavior: concepts, issues and practices . Mexico: McGraw Hill Interamericana.

Muchinsky, P. (2000). Psychology applied to work . New York: Thomas Learning Editors / Auditorium

Reeve, J. (2003). Motivation and Emotion (3 rd ed.) Mexico: McGraw Hill Interamericana

Robbins, S. (2004). Organizational Behavior (10 th ed.) Mexico: Pearson Education.

Vroom, V. and Deci, E. (Compilers). (1999). Motivation and senior management. Mexico: Editorial Trillas.

Zepeda, F. (1999). Organizational Psychology. Mexico: Addison Wesley Longman

November-2005.

Red Formal Dresses Under 50

TEN THEORIES OF MOTIVATION IN THE WORK

DANIEL ROMERO Pernia (*)


Motivation is a crucial concept in the study of organizations. His relationship with individual performance, satisfaction and organizational productivity has become an essential topic of Organizational Behavior. However, both the definition and explanation of the phenomenon have a wide spectrum of possibilities.

Motivation is a highly complex phenomenon. Is not easy to define. Any definition adopted would be somewhat arbitrary. For purposes of this introduction writing, consider the motivation as a process which begins, is sustained and directs behavior incentives to achieve a satisfying an important need at this time for the individual.

If it is difficult to define, more difficult is the attempt to explain it. Several theories compete to explain the phenomenon of motivation at work. Some could be complementary, others are clearly irreconcilable. Some reasons relate to a particular group of variables, sometimes with different variables. Some enjoy the support of the practical evidence, others have not run with the same fate. Some were born of theoretical speculation, others are daughters of praxis.

What we present below is a crushing summary of the main theories on motivation. The intention is to show the variety and richness of different approaches. They are merely a guide, a simple appetizer that stimulates a deeper search.

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS (Abraham Maslow)

The Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a first attempt to classify human motivations and understand their impact on behavior. The human needs, according to this theory, can be grouped into five categories: physiological needs (designed to ensure the existence of the individual and the species: hungry thirst, sleep, sex ...), security needs (protection from threats or risks, real or imagined), affiliation or social needs (belonging to groups in which the person can give and receive affection), or psychological needs ego (own estimate and others) and self-actualization needs (development of the personality). Such needs are hierarchically organized in a "pyramid" with the physiological basis of self-realization and the vertex. The individual tends to satisfy them in ascending order, so that organize their behavior around satisfying lower order needs that are unmet (Needs met, in other words, do not drive). When the needs that are motivating a moment begin to be met on a regular basis, the individual begins to be driven by the needs of the next order. In the workplace the different types of needs are met with varied and specific incentives. For example, physiological needs are satisfied with incentives such as wages and economic benefits, the security can be satisfied with job security or protection against occupational diseases and accidents; social needs harmonious interpersonal relationships in your work group, the psychological with awards and promotions for example, those of self with the assignment of challenging work, adapted to the expectations and capabilities of the worker.

XY THEORY AND THEORY (DOUGLAS McGREGOR)

McGregor approaches aim to account for the assumptions that underlie the actions of managers, and the consequences of those actions on its employees. Every manager has a set of assumptions about man and his relationship with the work, which are located on a continuum whose ends are known as Theory X and Theory Y. The first of these sets of assumptions contain a traditionalist and pessimistic vision of man and his relationship with work. Is the Theory X whereby workers are lazy by nature, working mainly for money, no ambition, do not identify with the organization, are resistant to change and lack of skills in complex work. In contrast to this, there is another set of assumptions more optimistic and humanist content. Theory Y is, that workers can enjoy their work as much as play or rest, looking for work in higher-order bonuses are ambitious and willing to assume new responsibilities, identify with the organization, are susceptible change and usually have more skills than shown in the daily work. However, every manager directs its management actions under the assumptions that support to be true. A manager who is identified with the tenets of the Theory X is likely to develop an autocratic leadership, closely monitor workers, seek to influence their behavior through rewards and punishments, will indicate in detail what to do and concentrate on their own hands the decision-making. A manager and guided by the theory, tend to develop a style of democratic or participatory leadership, give room for self-direction and self-control will provide opportunities for individuals to develop their potential, and provide autonomy workers to make decisions about their work. In short, every manager will develop a leadership style that is consistent with the assumptions you have about the man and his relationship with work. Most importantly, however, is the realization of self-fulfilling prophecy: the workers will react in a way that ratified the initial assumptions. In short, the manager assumes that employees have certain characteristics, directed in accordance with these assumptions and workers will behave as if these assumptions were true.

THEORY OF MOTIVATION-HEALTH (Frederick Herzberg)

Theory of Motivation-Hygiene also known as Theory of the two factors or Bifactorial Theory states that the factors causing dissatisfaction among workers are totally different nature of the factors leading to satisfaction. The theory is that man has a dual system of needs: the need to avoid pain or unpleasant situations and the need to grow emotionally and intellectually. To be qualitatively different, each type of need in the world of work require different incentives. So we can speak of two types of factors involved in motivation at work. Hygienic and preventive factors (salary, environmental conditions, monitoring mechanisms, relationships interpersonal and organizational management), avoid dissatisfaction but do not produce motivation satisfaction. Motivational factors (recognition, sense of accomplishment, autonomy or responsibility, advancement possibilities and work itself) do produce satisfaction, provided that the hygiene factors are functioning acceptably. Thus, if they are not working properly any of the factors, the individual will be totally dissatisfied. If only work hygiene factors, the worker will not be dissatisfied, but not be motivated (kind of point of indifference). If motivational factors operate, but not the hygienic, the worker is dissatisfied (they blocked the effects of motivational factors). There will only be motivated when both kinds of factors are working properly. THEORY

ERC (Clayton Alderfer)

ERC theory expounded by Alderfer, believes that human beings have three basic types of needs: existence needs (E), which require the provision of material conditions for the survival of individuals and species (covering the physiological and safety needs of Maslow's pyramid); needs ratio (R), to maintain satisfactory interactions with others feel part of a group and giving and receiving affection (corresponding to social needs and the esteem of Maslow's psychological needs) and growth needs (C), inner desire for personal development and have high self-concept same (equivalent psychological needs and self esteem in the scheme maslowniano). Alderfer suggests that these needs are sorted from the most concrete (Existence, which is basically satisfied with material incentives) to least specific (Growth, whose source of satisfaction is absolutely intrinsic). Although there is no rigid hierarchy as established Maslow, the energy that fuels the behavior the individual tends to move, according to Alderfer, from the more specific needs to the less specific (E-> R -> C), giving the phenomenon of projection satisfaction (it fills a need and moves to a less specific). However, Alderfer included in their model the possibility of the phenomenon of frustration-regression, which occurs when they are blocked less satisfying a specific need (in relation, for example) and the individual returns with more emphasis on the gratification of more individual needs (of existence, for instance). Two other events round out the basic principles of the ERC theory. When an individual is frustrated the satisfaction of their needs for existence (most precise), is engaged more actively with the satisfaction of other needs in that category. Finally, when an individual meets a growing need, he directs his conduct to the satisfaction of other needs of that nature.

THEORY OF HIGH NEEDS (David McClelland)

is also known as Theory of the three needs. He argues that once the individual has failed to meet their basic needs or primary (equivalent to the physiological and safety needs in Maslow's hierarchy), the conduct of the individual happens to be dominated by three types needs: the need for affiliation (NAF), which involve the desire to maintain friendly and close interpersonal relationships, needs for achievement (nlog), including the drive to excel, to achieve goals, overcome obstacles and succeed, and needs power (nPod), which implies a desire to influence people and situations to make certain things happen that otherwise would not occur. The three motivations or needs operate simultaneously, but at some point one of them dominates the others and the individual's behavior is organized in the pursuit of meeting that need. The orientation towards some of these motivations is learned through contact with socializing agents such as family, school, media and other organizations. McClelland stated that the exceptional filmmakers (persons of extraordinary performance) differ from the good producers (individuals with a satisfactory performance only), because they have a high achievement motivation (rather than the level of knowledge. The achievement-motivated workers seeking jobs where the goals are of moderate risk, which they have responsibility for results and where they can get feedback on their performance. McClelland stated that there is a verifiable historical relationship between the number of people motivated by achievement and degree of development of nations. Finally, if a high achievement motivation is needed for exceptional performers for the exercise of management is needed motivation for power, because the manager's role is not to directly execute the tasks, but lead others to perform services and achieve certain objectives.

Expectancy Theory (V. VROOM, E. DECI, L. PORTER)

Expectations Theory aware of the factors that affect motivation, on the one hand, and variables with motivation affect the performance expected of workers. The performance expected of a worker is the product of the combination three variables: motivation, training and role perception. The motivation, in turn, depends on the value of the reward (Valencia) and the likelihood of obtaining it if you make the right effort. This probability can be decomposed into two: the probability that the effort to drive the outcome (expectancy) and the probability of having obtained the result reaches the reward (instrumentality). Thus, the motivation is the amount of effort that the individual is willing to do to achieve their organizational goals. The motivation will depend on how much value the individual granted the reward (ie, the ability of the incentive to meet their dominant) and subjective probability (expectancy x instrumentality) that he perceives that it can effectively reach this reward if you manage organizational goals. High motivation is not enough to expect a good performance (ie, a satisfactory achievement of organizational goals). Two additional factors come into play. One of them is training, (ie, ability to perform effectively in their current position). The other is the perception of the role (that is, the degree of correspondence between what the individual thinks he should do and what your supervisor, who is the performance measure, expected of him). So that a high reward value and a high probability that can be perceived obtain results in highly motivated worker, who combined with good training and a sound knowledge of their role, will yield a high expected performance. A low value of any of these variables produces a significant decrease in expected performance.

Equity Theory (J. Stacey Adams)

Equity Theory tries to explain the effect it has on the motivation that individuals make comparison between his situation (in terms of the contributions made and benefits receiver) and other individuals or groups that are taken as references. Within an organization, each individual brings certain contributions (A) in their work (Knowledge, expertise, time, effort, dedication, enthusiasm ...) and receives a set of results (R) (wages, other economic benefits, prestige, esteem, affection ...). Individuals tend to compare their results and their own contributions to the results and contributions of others or reference groups. If Rp and Ap call the results and contributions of their own and Rpr and April to the results of the reference input, you can make the following comparisons: If (Rp / Ap) = (Rpr / Apr) no sense of fairness, since the relationship between the results and their own contributions is equal to the ratio enter the reference results and contributions. In such a situation the individual is motivated to conduct high performance. If (Rp / Ap) < (Rpr/Apr) hay sensación de inequidad pues se siente sub-retribuido. En tal caso, el individuo ve disminuida su motivación y desarrolla conductas compensatorias (por lo general disminuyendo sus aportes o incrementando sus resultados por cualquier vía). Por último, si (Rp/Ap) > (Rpr / Apr) the individual can develop a sense of guilt and also assumes behavior to restore equity (generally, increasing their contributions or reducing their results). In addition to altering the input and / or the results themselves, people can develop other behaviors to restore fairness: they can change the input of reference, modify the results of reference, change the reference or change the situation. According to Equity Theory, the individual can make comparisons to a reference within the same organization (internal one) and another person from another organization (other external) with his own experience in other posts in the same organization (internal self), or the experience of the person in another organization (outside of its own).

THEORY OF COGNITIVE ASSESSMENT (E. Deci, R. RYAN. R. THE CHARM)

The Theory of Cognitive Assessment seeks to determine the influence of rewards on intrinsic motivation. Basically states that when a person performs an activity driven by intrinsic motivation and get some reward (extrinsic motivation) this causes a decrease in initial intrinsic motivation. The most common explanation of the phenomenon indicates that by adding external compensation (rewards), the individual begins to perceive that their behavior is controlled from outside by others (the giving of the reward). This negatively affects their self-determination and intrinsic motivation suffers. We have found, however, that not all rewards have the same effect on intrinsic motivation. Tangible rewards (money or other material reward, for example) decrease intrinsic motivation, while the intangible rewards (praise, verbigracia) is not affected. On the other hand, the expected rewards (announced in advance) decrease intrinsic motivation, while unexpected rewards not affected. Thus, a tangible reward and expected strongly affects intrinsic motivation. Intangible and unexpected reward would not affect her. So that the relationship between external rewards and intrinsic motivation is not as linear as initially believed. Another pair of factors provides a clearer picture of this relationship, Every reward has two effects: a controlling effect of the behavior (shapes behavior in the direction desired by the grantor of the reward, thus affecting the determination of the individual) and an effect information on their competence (the person communicates to your skill level to perform the task.) If a reward has a little effect controller (promoting self-determination) makes the increase intrinsic motivation. This does not occur if the reward is high controlling effect (denies self-determination). On the other hand, if the information makes the individual is perceived as very competent, intrinsic motivation is encouraged. The opposite occurs if the information emphasizes the failures and conveys an idea of \u200b\u200blow competition.

of instituting THEORY OF TARGETS (EDWIN LOCKE)

The goal setting theory emphasizes the role of specific goals motivating the behavior of the individual. A goal is anything that an individual strives to achieve. In other conditions equal (ability, task knowledge, attractive rewards, availability of resources), a worker with clear goals will perform better than one that has not or whose goals are vague. For targets can act as an incentive for motivation must have some degree of difficulty (goals too low or too much difficulty did not operate as motivators) should be specific (note clearly and precisely what you want to achieve). Specific goals and desires to reach difficult to arouse (intensity of motivation), guide behavior in a certain sense (direction) and stimulating the persistence over time, until it achieves the goal. In addition, there must be feedback, ie, the individual must be able to learn about their progress on their way to the goal. But not enough specific and challenging goals, and the possibility of feedback. The influence of these goals on performance is moderated by other factors: the commitment to the goal (degree of acceptance, either because the individual participated in setting or because the person who assigned it is perceived as credible and trustworthy), the efficiency personal (ie, the perception of the individual over his own ability to achieve the target), the type of tasks (group goals generate less enthusiasm for the results not only depend on the individual but the actions of others that he does not control) and the national culture (the kind of values \u200b\u200band motivations encouraged by the culture of society.)

FLOW THEORY (Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi)

flow theory is an attempt to explain what happens when the realization of an individual activity results in a sensation so pleasurable that the person made, even has a high degree of difficulty, for the sheer pleasure of it. This state of full concentration and pleasurable is called the flow and when people experience is deeply absorbed in what they are doing, attention is exclusive to the task and your consciousness merges with their actions. The attention is so concentrated that the person loses track of time and space. The experience of flow is entirely intrinsic motivation, and occurs regardless of the target (this can be achieved, but not because the intention of the actor is his achievement.) The individual only focuses on what it does for the pleasure you get with such implementation. The experience of flow requires the existence of a task that has a good dose of challenge, claiming the implementation of the skills and abilities of the individual. The experience of flow, therefore, is more intense when the challenge is greater and the skills necessary to address are higher. The relationship between challenge and competence of the individual task, and produce the experience of flow (when there are high-level skills for highly challenging tasks), may produce other results when challenges and skills do not match. Thus, a low competition (low ability) compared to moderately challenging tasks raises concerns. Low competition with very challenging tasks provokes anxiety. A high competition with barely challenging task because boredom. And finally, down slightly competition with challenging tasks leads to apathy.

THEORY OF INTRINSIC MOTIVATION (KENNETH THOMAS)

Theory Intrinsic motivation stems from the fact that today's organizations are not looking for "submission" of the worker, but their commitment and initiative. Therefore there are enough external rewards with previously "bought" this submission. The new style of work is that workers want more than money and self-interest at work, that workers seek intrinsic rewards to the mere execution of work, that these internal rewards are high emotional and "do to do "makes people feel good. These circumstances make the workers look at their work achievement a valuable purpose, which claims to achieve self-direction. This self-direction requires more initiative and commitment, which depends on satisfying deeper than those offered by external rewards. Self-direction, therefore, offers the possibility that the employee receives four intrinsic rewards, autonomy (freedom to choose the tasks that lead to the goal and to choose how these tasks will be performed), competition (perception that have the ability and skill necessary to perform the task), sense or meaning (belief that the work leading to a goal or purpose which is highly valued by the individual) and progress (Opportunity to learn about the progress of work towards achieving the purpose). The combination of these four elements cause a state of intrinsic motivation (derived from the actual performance of the task) which in turn generates a high performance (achievement of organizational goals) and a high satisfaction (achievement of personal goals)



ESSENTIAL READING :

Gibson, J., Ivancevich, J. & Donnelly, J. (2001). Organizations (behavior, structure, processes) (10th ed.). Santiago de Chile: Mc Graw Hill Publishers

Hersey, P., Blanchard, K. & Johnson, D. (1998). Administration organizational behavior (7 th ed.). Mexico: Editorial Hispano Prentice-Hall.

Kast, F. & Rosenzweig, J. (1996), Managing in organizations (Focus Systems and Contingency) (4 th ed.). Mexico: Editorial Trillas

McGregor, D. (2001). The human factor in the company, Collection Business Management. Caracas: Ediciones Deusto

Reeve, J. (2002). Motivation and Emotion (3 rd ed.) Mexico, DF: McGraw-Hill

Robins, S. (2004), Organizational Behavior (10 th ed.). Mexico: Pearson Education.

Thomas, K. (2001), Motivation and fullness 8 hours per day, Mexico, DF: Editorial Grijalbo

Vroom, V. and Deci, E (ed.) (1999), Motivation and senior management, Editorial Trillas, Mexico, DF: Editorial Trillas